Analysis Of Short Story Daisy Miller

Analysis Of Short Story Daisy Miller It is very interesting to analyze this short novel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Daisy Miller written by Henry James. This novel has a lot of fascinating things ready to be discovered and understood, and behind the story of the novel a lot of symbols are hidding ready to be dyscovered and understood. This symbols are revealing a new perspective upon the story, a new way of understanding the narrative. Another interesting thing noticed in Daisy Miller is the permanent contrast that is being created, like a symbolic opposition between summer and winter, hot and cold, youth and old age, flower (daisy) and winter, life and death. Daisy Miller herself is an image situated in the middle of contrastive opinions, she plays the part of the innocent girl, being permanently judged by society, judged by Winterbourne, although deep inside she is innocent and pure; so, an incongruity between reality and appearance is being created. Another interesting aspect of this novel is the setting. From the beginning of the book, the author makes a great introduction by situating the action, placing the reader slowly in the situation. Firstly the location is being named: At the little town in Veney, in Switzerland, so, the place is set. The narrative technique used by the author in the first paragraphs is a very interesting one. The image is firstly enlarged and then slowly with every word, the background converges, persisting on the description of the hotel and the tourist, ending by setting the time: a beautiful summer morning and then concentrating on one of the novels character: Winterbourne. So, a part of the action takes part in Switzerland and another segment of the novels action takes place in Rome. These two settings are notarbitrary chosen, both have a deep significance. These places are symbols of other literary works or genres. Firstly both are tight related with Romantic poets whom Winterbourne deeply regard. Mary Shelleys Frankenstein takes place largely in Switzerland, and Mary Shelley wrote it during the time that she, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron sojourned at Lake Geneva. Mary Shelley and John Keats are both buried in the Protestant Cemetery, which becomes Daisys own final resting place  [4]  . Chapter three starts with the sentence: Winterbourne, who had returned to Geneva the day after his excursion to Chillon, went to Rome towards the end of January  [5]  . This sentence points exactly the three main locations where the action of the novel takes place and where the characters of the novel express their relationships and their attitudes. Not randomly chosen, the capital of Italy, Rome might be seen as a mute character, a silent witness of the action or as a background that links contrastive matters. Rome is the city of Renaissance, the city where art bloomed, a city where the artist might easily find the place to express. Here, Daisy behaves in a very libertine way; she doesnt care about any social or ethical values, maintaining her innocence and her integrity without anybody, especially Winterbourne to notice that. Daisy, like an artist, is only judged and condemned and only after her dead she is being understood and appreciated. In Rome there was a lot of talking about the so called Roman fever; this line has a double significance, although firstly it could be understood as the mothers worry about their daughters, this expression symbolize a disease: malaria, the malady that was haunting the city, and who finally kills Daisy. Another important setting of the novels action is the Coliseum; this is the background where a very important scene takes place. Here Daisy has the final encounter with Winterbourne, here she contacts the fever, malaria and after that she dies. This place is not randomly chose. In ancient times, the Coliseum was a place famous for different fights and contests. But also, the Coliseum is well-known as the place where centuries of Christian martyrdoms took place  [6]  . Considering this background from a symbolic perspective the Coliseum becomes a place where an innocent girl was killed without having any guilt and being pure and sinless just like the Christians in the ancient times. It is typical for Henry James to represent the society of people interested in ideas and refinements of subtle manner. He often was considered as being a cosmopolite because he liked travelling so much and he often moved between America, England and Europe. The conflict between Americans and Europeans can be found as one of the main themes in the background of his novel. This theme has at its basis a modernistic concept specific to the age. The American origin plays a great role in the novel because all the characters that bare this nationality are the greatest characters, that mature and finally achieve a greatness at the end of the novel. The usual image that we find is the one of the American that loses a part of that initial innocence when encountering the figure of the European with life experience. When it comes to James structure of the novel, we can find that almost all of them are structured in the same way. We have a central thing that supremely matters, as James himself said, that all the lines point at. In Daisy Miller , this supreme matter is Winterbourne lust for the discovery of Daisys innocence. As a consequence we have the circular structure of the novel as an approach to the central subject. Henry James offers us situations of a society that he was part of and we can see that in his novels, every incident has its function in providing us more information about a situation or a character. Although we may be tempted to say that he had a sort of realism in his works, the only reality we can find is the description of a society of conflict.

Guide To Rudyard Kipling And If English Language Essay

Guide To Rudyard Kipling And If English Language Essay A son, a brother, a husband, a father, a writerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Rudyard Kipling. Rudyard Kipling was called, by some, one of Englands best short story writers and this is how it all began (Rudyard Kipling). Rudyard was born on December 30th, 1865, in Bombay (Rudyard Kipling-Biography). His parents lived in Bombay because of his fathers job. His mother and father both worked so that they could support their two children, Rudyard and Alice. Kiplings sister was three years younger than him and was born in 1868 (Sandison, A.G.). Rudyard Kipling lived with foster parents, in England, for quite some time. He and his sister were not expecting to be left there, with a foster family, while his parents went back to Bombay (Orel, Harold). It was 1871, when they arrived at the south coast of England, to find a cruel foster parent, who they had to call Aunty Rosa, waiting for them there. Rudyard didnt have a good experience there; he was treated poorly and abused, while living there for 6 years. That was a big change from the time he spent in Bombay, being the center of attention and basically having a pretty good life. This experience really impacted his writing. He had issues, throughout his life, because of his foster family. He also ended up getting insomnia and he had it the rest of his life (Sandison, A.G.). One tradition that Kipling and his sister had was going to their aunt and uncles house every Christmas. It was a great relief from being at Aunty Rosas house. Not only was this house their aunt and uncles, it was an artist and writer hot spot. They would all meet there every so often. In doing this every year, Rudyard was greatly influenced by some very talented writers, which really started him on his writing journey. Three of these writers made a big impact and connected with Rudyard. Those three men were his uncle, Burne-Jones, Cormell Price, and William Morris. But, Burne-Jones, Rudyards uncle, was the closest to him out of everyone (Sandison, A.G.). Rudyard went to United Services College until he was almost seventeen. Cormell Price was the headmaster of that school and since he already was close to Kipling, he gave him permission to use his library, which increased his writing skills (Sandison, A.G.). He went back to live with his parents in Lahore when he was 16, which was the year of 1882. He wrote a lot of pieces while he was there. It is actually what really started to get him recognized. Kipling returned to England in the year of 1889 and started writing some great short stories after one of his, Barrack-Room Ballads, was praised. Kipling started moving right along in his successful writing career and was starting to become famous (Rudyard Kipling). In 1892, Kipling married a girl named Carrie. She was the sister to one of his friends who had recently passed away. They moved back to his wifes home in Brattleboro, Vermont. That is where his first two kids were born- Josephine and Elsie. He also wrote Captains Courageous and The Jungle Book in Brattleboro. In 1896, they moved back to England because he had a fall out with his brother-in-law. Then, a year afterwards, they moved to Rottingdean, in Sussex, where their son, John, was born. In 1899, his daughter died, while they were in the U.S. for a visit. They lost their son, John, in World War I, soon after Josephines death. Kipling kept on writing even through all these tragic times. He was actually awarded a Nobel Peace Prize, in 1907, and became very famous. Rudyard Kipling led a good life and, sadly, died January of 1936, on one of many of their family trips (Rudyard Kipling).That basically sums up Kiplings life, in a nutshell. Overview/Summary of If Rudyard Kipling wrote the poem If in attempts to show the reader how to live life and solve problems simply. He wrote this poem to his son during World War I, offering great advice on life (Lewis, J.R.). This particular poem captured the attention of those who usually dont care for, or flat out, dont like poetry. This poem was said to be one of the best poems ever written (Lewis, J.R.). This poem is broken into four sections and each of these sections are filled with great meaning. People should read this poem and learn from it great life lessons and become better people all together. Rudyard Kipling excelled with this piece of literature. He summed up how people should live life in a short but sweet poem (Sharum, Angel L). The first section of this poem is really about not getting caught up within your own pride. Dont try and change for other people and popularity or status. Try to do what is right and not what others think is right. Dont become self-centered or haughty. Be yourself and stay on the right path and know that you are doing the right thing. That is how this first section of If can be interpreted (Sharum, Angel L). The second section of Rudyard Kiplings popular poem has just as much meaning as the first section. This sections main points would have to be, pushing right on through all the hard challenges that always interfere with your goals and dreams in life. Also, this section says to create goals to aim for and try to accomplish them without letting them rule your life. So, perseverance is a big lesson in the section. When life gets tough, gut it out and keep moving forward (Sharum, Angel L). Now, on to the third section of this poem named If. This section is almost like the last section. It says to not give up and dont admit defeat when a failure occurs. It tells people to try again and keep working at it until the goal is met. That is what the third section of If is about. Never say never, and dont give in to laziness, doubt, or defeat (Sharum, Angel L). Last, but not least, is the final section of this great work of art and marvelous piece of literature. This section of the poem has a couple of great meanings hiding in it. No one is better or worse than another person. Everyone has special qualities that they possess; it is just whether people will take the effort to look hard enough to find them. Another good point in this would be to not waste the time in life. Try to enjoy every day in life and make it meaningful. If people didnt waste their time and lives focusing on the bad things and unfair things they would be far better off. Once people realize to make every moment in life count, they will be more successful and lead happier lives. (Sharum, Angel L). That is a basic summary of the poem that Rudyard Kipling wrote. He inspired tons of people with this poem and is still inspiring people to this very day (Lewis, J.R.)! It really gives good examples and sets great goals for peoples lives. The poem is almost like a little guide for peoples lives (Sharum, Angel L). This particular poem just might have been the most famous of all the poems he had written. It got so popular that people all over were translating it into their own languages and would make copies of it. This poem is like a instruction manual for the common, human being. That is what this poem is really all about (Sharum, Angel L). Critical Analysis of If  ¨Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Influences Rudyard Kipling had many influential people and experiences in his lifetime. The first thing is that he lived in India in his early years and then moved back to India when he was a teenager. That really impacted Kiplings type, style, and story lines of a lot of the pieces he wrote (Orel, Harold). Another experience, that majorly impacted his whole life, was living with his cruel foster parents. He was neglected and abused and never fully recovered from that. He had insomnia for the rest of his life, along with other issues (Sandison, A.G.). Going to his aunt and uncles house every Christmas influenced him because he met some very influential people and made personal relationships with them. That helped him get to where he was when he got older. He got special privileges at his school because he was close to the headmaster. Kipling excelled because he was free to use the headmasters personal library (Sandison, A.G.). One more big thing that occurred in his life was that he lost two of his children within sixteen years. His daughter died tragically on a family vacation. Then, sixteen years later he lost his son in the war. Those are just some of the influential times in his life (Rudyard Kipling).  ¨Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Main Themes The first theme would be growing up and becoming a man. It discusses maturing into manhood, growing up, and becoming wiser. Connected to that would be learning leadership skills. In the process of becoming a man, leadership skills are usually required to succeed and earn respect (If| Introduction). Another theme in this poem is righteousness rather than being self-righteous. The point Kipling is trying to get across is quite simple. People striving to be righteous should not be self-centered. Those two things, righteousness and self-righteousness are total opposites. So, if people act self-righteous they arent going to achieve righteousness any time soon (If| Introduction). The next theme is having a good work ethic. People should not give up when things get hard. They shouldnt decide to be lazy and just decide not to do something because they dont feel like it. People should always keep trying and persevering through hard times and it will pay off in the long run (If| Introduction). The last theme of this poem is detachment. Failure and success should not be focused on because they will not last nor will they be permanent. Do not get attached to something that will leave as quickly as it came. That concludes the themes of this poem (If| Introduction).  ¨Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Stylistic Devices Kiplings poem had at least three stylistic and literary devices in it. The three devices in this poem were repetition, personification and alliteration. These are the main literary and stylistic devices that showed up in If (Yahoo! Answers). Repetition was a big literary device that was used in this poem. The way it was used was with the word you. Almost every line has the word you in it! So, obviously, this is a very good literary device throughout this poem. That is the first device that has been used (Yahoo! Answers). Personification is the second device found in this poem. Here are a few examples from the poem. One is, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦make dreams your master and another is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦make thoughts your aimà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Those are both examples of personification used in the poem. So, that was the second literary device that was used in Kiplings poem (Yahoo! Answers). The last device used in this poem was alliteration. There are only two examples of alliteration in this poem, but there still is alliteration. The first example is, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦with wornout toolsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The second example in this poem of alliteration is, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦sixty secondsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Those are the examples of alliteration in this poem. That concludes the literary and stylistic devices of Rudyard Kiplings poem, If (Yahoo! Answers).  ¨Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Impressions This page is about my impression of the poem. I really liked the poem. After reading it a lot of times and then seeing what other people had to say about it, I just kept getting more and more out of it. I started understanding more of what it really meant and was saying every time I read it. My first impression was, Wow! This poem is really confusing and doesnt make much sense. I thought it would be hard to write about because it was kind of confusing. I also thought that because it was so short that I wouldnt have enough information to write one page about. But, as you can see, I was wrong. As I kept working, I started understanding it and actually started to really enjoy it. I had more than enough information to write about. I also learned some from this. Most things I already knew, but it is always good to be reminded. I think that Rudyard Kipling was an amazing writer, considering all the tragedies he had to go through. It was almost like he was writing this poem partially out of his own experiences. I really liked the points he tried to get across and am just surprised that he was able to express such a powerful message in that short of a poem. I really thought this poem was great and can understand how it became so popular throughout the world so fast. That is my impression of If by Rudyard Kipling. Test Over Rudyard Kipling and If Multiple Choice: 1.) Where was Kipling born? a. Rome b. Brattleboro c. England d. Bombay 2.) How many siblings did Kipling have? a. 3 b. 1 c. 5 d. 2 3.) Where did Kipling go to school? a. United Services College b. United Forces College 4.) Where did Kipling spend most of his childhood? a. Bombay b. England c. Brattleboro d. Rome 5.) What was Kiplings foster parents name? a. Aunty Lily b. Aunty Rosa b. Aunty Sue c. Aunty Mae 6.) How many kids did Kipling have? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 7.) What was Kiplings wifes name? a. Carrie b. Sue c. Jane d. Lynn 8.) Who was closest to Kipling? a. Uncle b. Dad c. Mom d. Foster mom 9.) When Kipling was 16 where did he move? a. Bombay b. Rome c. Lahore d. Vermont 10.) What was Kiplings sisters name? a. Alice b. Jen c. Carrie d. Rosa 11.) What was Kiplings really famous poem? a. Now b. What If c. If d. Why 12.) How many times is alliteration shown in If? a. 2 b. 1 c. 10 d. 4 13.) During what big event did he write If? a. WWII b. Civil War c. WWI d. Cold War 14.) How many of his children died young? a. 3 b. 1 c. 2 d. None 15.) How many literary devices show up in If? a. 0 b. 5 c. 6 d. 3 16.) How many big themes are in If? a. 3 b. 5 c. 2 d. 4 17.) How would Kiplings foster parents be described? a. Kind b. Shy c. Generous d. Cruel 18.) Who did Kipling write If to? a. Wife b. Sister c. Dad d. Son 19.) What year was Kipling born? a.1855 b. 1885 c. 1865 d. 1845 20.) What year did Kipling die? a. 1926 b. 1936 c. 1916 d.1906 Fill in the blank: 1.) Kipling was awarded a in 1907. 2.) Kipling spent every with his aunt and uncle. 3.) Kipling was by his foster parents. 4.) Kipling had his whole life. 5.) Kiplings son died in . 6.) If was written to show people how to solve simply. 7.) Using the word you over and over in if is called . 8.) The three literary devices in Kiplings poem If were , , . 9.) Kipling married his friends . 10.) Kiplings birthday was December . Essay: What were the main ideas that Rudyard Kipling was trying to get across to the readers of his poem If? Test Answer Key Multiple Choice: 1.)  Ã‚   D. 2.)  Ã‚   B. 3.)  Ã‚   A. 4.)  Ã‚   B. 5.)  Ã‚   B. 6.)  Ã‚   C. 7.)  Ã‚   A. 8.)  Ã‚   A. 9.)  Ã‚   C. 10.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A. 11.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   C. 12.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A. 13.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   C. 14.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   C. 15.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   D. 16.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   D. 17.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   D. 18.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   D. 19.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   C. 20.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   B. Fill in the Blank: 1.)   Nobel Peace Prize 2.)   Christmas 3.)   Abused 4.)   Insomnia 5.)   WWI 6.)   Problems 7.)   Repetition 8.)   Repetition, Personification, and Alliteration. 9.)   Sister 10.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   30th Essay: He wanted to show people not to value worldly possessions. He also wanted people to be happy with life and enjoy each and every minute of it. Not to hold on to grudges or act like a child. Stop thinking all about yourself and stop being a conceited person. Be righteous but not self- righteous. Never give up when things get hard. Enjoy your life and everyone in it. That is the main points Rudyard Kipling was expressing in his poem If.

Lorenzos Hometown :: Essays Papers

Lorenzo's Hometown Lorenzo Lujan grew up in Morenci, Arizona. His father worked in the Morenci Mine, and his brothers, brothers in law, uncles and his wife's family all worked in the mine. He said, "[Morenci] was like a big family--and I don't just mean literal family members, the whole town was a family. Morenci was the type of town where you didn't have to lock your doors at night; everybody knew everybody else." But he doesn't relish the idea of returning to his hometown. "Phelps Dodge broke up that whole community. Ninety percent of the people left," he said. "So, when I go to Morenci now, it isn’t the same town I grew up in." Now, in addition to teaching Machine Technologies courses at Pima Community College, he is the Instrument Shop Supervisor in the Chemical Engineering lab at the University of Arizona. My roommate works in the shop he supervises and comes home with some of the most comic stories I've heard in a while. Between eating their own weight in burros and competing with each other in the latest computer games, they manufacture precise custom equipment that is used in experiments involving everything from lasers to rat dissection. I became interested in this fascinating coexistence of Mexican food, video games and drill presses when I learned of Lorenzo's connection to Morenci. What could have possibly happened to the small mining community of Morenci to cause a mass exodus? The answer: STRIKE. But, not just any strike could break up this community. The Morenci Mine Strike of 1983 lasted for over 30 months and left many of Morenci's residents unemployed. The '83 strike pitted half the community against the other, and brought the in outside world with an alarming show of force. In 1983, Phelps Dodge, one of the world's largest mining corporations, was in serious trouble. In 1982, they lost $74million mostly due to bad investments and management personnel issues, but the price of copper was hovering just below the break-even point as well. They had to make cuts to help recoup their financial losses, so in April of 1982, they laid off their entire Arizona and Texas work forces totaling over 3,400 hourly employees. In May of 1983 when the miners' contract negotiations began, the unions wanted to keep the cost-of-living adjustment (COLA) and the medical benefits already in their contracts.

Dedicated Police Officers in the Film, End of Watch Essay -- Criminal

End of Watch (Ayer, 2012) is a film which follows the lives of two police officers, partners Brian Taylor and Mike Zavala, in the Los Angeles Police Department. The movie is shot in the style of a documentary and because of this the film centralized on these two officers and their patrols. When the film began Taylor and Zavala had just successfully apprehended two suspects in a high speed car chase which they were praised for by other officers and members of the department. From then on out the officers made a number of impressive arrests, rescues, and discoveries the two partners made throughout the film. Unfortunately for the Taylor and Zavala, their successfulness in investigating and apprehending locations and suspects of a drug ring caught the attention of the leaders of a Mexican drug cartel. A hit was put out on Taylor and Zavala by leaders of the Mexican drug cartel because they were becoming a nuisance. This hit was carried out by the same Latino gang members who had previously done a drive-by shooting of a rival gang. The officers were enticed towards their imminent deaths with a car chase which was set up by the Latino gang members. This chase led them towards an apartment complex which was rigged with many gang members and artillery to ensure that neither Taylor nor Zavala would survive. The two were ambushed but decided that gunning their way out was their best option. When the officers made it to an alley they were met by another Latino gang member who fired at Taylor and Zavala, hitting Taylor once in the chest before being shot and killed by Zavala. Zavala went to aid Taylor who appeared to be quickly dying and called out for help. Before police back up arrived the original Latino gang members found Zavala in the... ... of risks come with being a police officer. Solutions used to deter and prevent crime in the film End of Watch (Ayer, 2012) focused on police and the duties officers perform while on patrol. In the movie police officers played a central role in the capture of many gang and drug cartel members. This was told through the perspective of officers Brian Taylor and Mike Zavala. Therefore, the solution to crime concentrated on the police involvement, in this case Taylor and Zavala, through their presence, protection, arrests, and investigations. This solution could be generalized and would be possible through the hard work of dedicated police officers. Works Cited Ayer, D. (Director). (2012). End of watch [Motion picture]. USA: Exclusive Media Group. Seigal, L. J., & Worrall, J. L. (2012). Introduction to criminal justice (13th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC) or ‘rodent ulcer’ is a malignant tumor of the skin that develops from the basal cell layer of the epidermis and also from the hair follicles. It is a slow-growing tumor that usually develops in sun-affected skin. The tumor does not tend to metastases to other parts of the body but may invade surrounding tissues (Halachmi, 2006). Basal cell carcinoma is a type of skin cancer that does not develop from the cells that produce melanin (non-melanocytic type of tumors).It is the most common form of skin cancer and includes 75 % of all skin cancers (Halachmi, 2006). The condition frequently develops in individuals exposed to high amounts of radiation and sunlight (Halachmi, 2006). In the US, Basal cell carcinoma is the most common form of skin cancer. The incidences is higher in Australia, than in the UK and US. However, BCC does not seem to be a life-threatening condition. The incidence of Basal cell carcinoma is rising by about 10 % every year, thro ughout the World. The lifetime risk of developing BCC is about 30 % in Whites (Wong, 2003).There are several types of BCC including nodular, superficial types, sclerosing type, pigmented type and the multiple-superficial type. The superficial type is usually present on the face and is seen as a growth of tissues having rolled out margins. Sometimes, the contents of the tumor may be cystic. The lesion may also appear pigmented. Frequently, nodular lesions may ulcerate or bleed when minimal trauma is applied over them. The sclerosing type usually appears as a thickened scar following surgery. BCC usually develops in the age group of 40 years and above.Individuals who are frequently exposed to excessive sunlight or ultraviolet rays, those develop sunburns, or who have developed sunburns during childhood, or those who have developed skin cancers (such as BCC, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma) are at a higher risk of developing BCC (NDZL, 2007). Sometimes BCC may develop in families. In certain conditions such as Gorlin's syndrome, albinism, basal cell nevus syndrome and Barex syndrome, which runs in families, the risk of developing BCC is higher (NDZL, 2007).Light-skinned individuals and those having blond or red-colored hair, blue or green eyes are at greater chances of developing this condition. Frequently, over-exposure to x-rays, ultraviolet and other forms of radiation may worsen the risk of developing BCC. The incidence of BCC in younger individuals is on the rise (as they may like to undergo sun tanning and spend a lot of time outdoors). Individuals who are on immunosuppressant therapy are also at a higher risk of developing BCC (Wong, 2003). BCC usually begins as a painless growth on the outer layer of relatively normal looking skin.The tumor tends to grow and spread very slowly, and may vary in size from a two to three millimeters in the early stages to a few centimeters in the later stages. Sometimes, the lesion may ulcerate and the wound does not he al with usual amount of time. The lesion may bleed easily as the blood vessels may be involved with the tumor. The nerves may also be involved with the cancer. The affected portion of the skin may appear different. Sometimes, pigmented forms of BCC may develop such as pearly or waxy bumps or swellings (usually appears in this form), white or pink lesions, brown or flesh-colored lesions.The lesion may also be felt as a bump or a small swelling. The regional lymph nodes are usually not involved during the early stages of the disease and the tumor does not spread to other parts of the body, in the initial stages. Frequently, the lesion exhibits oozing or crusting on the surface. Sometimes, the lesion may develop from a scar left back following surgery. The lesion may also develop as a small depressed spot on the surface of the skin. The tumor can develop on several parts of the body such as the head, neck, scalp, ears, chest, face, nose, eyes, hands, legs, back, genitals, etc.It is mor e frequent in the portions of the body exposed to sunlight. The diagnosis of BCC is made based on the history, symptoms, signs, detailed physical examination, laboratory tests (to determine the spread of cancerous cells in the blood) and biopsy. The physician will take a detailed history to determine if the individual has had a previous history of certain skin disorders and also to study the family risk patterns. A detailed examination of the lesion is performed, and the physician will study its size, shape, color, consistency, the regional lymph nodes and spread to the surrounding structures of the body (Halachmi, 2006).The diagnosis is usually confirmed by taking a sample of the tissue for biopsy. The biopsy demonstrates the development of the tumor from the basal cell layer of the epidermis. Cancerous features are present in the sample (Halachmi, 2006). The treatment of BCC various depending on the size of the lesion, general condition of the patient, spread to other parts of the body, part of the body involved with the cancer, involvement of neighboring tissues and lymph nodes, etc. Small superficial lesions are treated by shaving off or scraping the tumor, along with curettage and cauterization (using electric current) (NDZL, 2003).Cauterization helps to destroy the residual cancerous cells that may be present in the surrounding tissues. A suture may be applied to ensure that the lesion heals without any problems. Larger basal cell carcinoma lesions are treated by removing the diseased tissue (excision), along with a margin of the normal tissues and suturing the skin (NDZL, 2003). A graft may be required in certain situations, to ensure the lesion heals properly. In certain types of BCC, an immune-modifying agent Immiquimod can be utilized to encourage the immune system to destroy the cancerous cells.Photosensitizing agents such as Metvix can be utilized to treat the superficial forms of BCC (photodynamic therapy). Once this medication is applied over the lesion, the oxygen and light tend to bring about a chemical reaction that destroy the cancerous cells. This treatment may usually require for the sclerosing type of BCC. Cryotherapy (treatment using cold substances such as liquid nitrogen) is also effective in destroying the cancerous cells. Some tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body and to the lymph nodes can be treated with radiotherapy (in which high-energy waves are utilized to destroy the cancerous cells).It may be required especially in elders who tend to develop lesions on their face. The cure rate following radiotherapy is about 90 % (Wong, 2003). Laser therapy can also be utilized to treat the tumor. Individuals with recurrent and invasive forms of the disease may require Moh’s microscopically controlled excision. It is especially recommended if the borders of the tumor are ill-defined and cannot be determined. Microscopic examinations of the excised lesions are usually conducted whilst the patient is being operated. The tumor is removed until a margin of normal tissue is obtained.Many surgeons have gone on to remove larger than usual amounts of the tissues as the unfelt extensions of the lesion are not identified (NDZL, 2003). The success rate is usually good following Moh’s procedure. It can also be utilized to treat recurrences of BCC (NCI, 2007). The outcome of BCC is usually good, and depends on several factors such as size and spread of the tumor to the neighboring tissues, lymph nodes and distant parts of the body, and the promptness in detecting the cancer and initiating treatment. Very rarely, the tumor results in fatal outcome (Wong, 2003).Usually, the chances of recurrences are less than one percent (Halachmi, 2006). Individuals undergoing Moh’s procedure may have a higher recurrence rate (it is about 10 %) as the tumor may have spread to surrounding structures (due to delay in treatment) (Halachmi, 2006). Individuals who have been treated for BCC should be regularly be monitored. BCC can be prevented to some extent by lowering exposure to ultraviolet rays present in the sunlight. The skin should be protected with adequate clothing and UV-protective eyewear, especially during the midday and in summer months.A sunscreen that protects from UV A rays and UV B rays should be utilized. The skin should be examined regularly to determine any change in color, texture or appearance. References: American Academy of Dermatology (2006). Basal Cell Carcinoma. Retrieved on April 16, 2006, from AAD Website: http://www. aad. org/public/Publications/pamphlets/BasalCellCarcinoma. htm Halachmi, S. (2006). Basal Cell Carcinoma. Retrieved on April 16, 2006, from Medline Plus Website: http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000824.htm National Cancer Institute (2006). Basal Cell Carcinoma of the Skin. Retrieved on April 16, 2006, from NCI Website: http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/skin/HealthProfessional/page5 New Zealand Dem atoligcal Society (2007). Basal Cell Carcinoma. Retrieved on April 16, 2006, from Derm Net NZ Website: http://dermnetnz. org/lesions/basal-cell-carcinoma. html Wong, C. S. M. , Strange, R. C. and Lear, J. T. (2003). â€Å"Basal Cell Carcinoma. † BMJ, 327, 794-798. http://www. bmj. com/cgi/content/full/327/7418/794

Social Work

Social work is a profession in which it is important to have a set of rules to follow while working with clients. In the social work field, the code of ethics, values and use of supervision are important keys in how licensed social workers should handle their clients' private documents and other information in association with having skilled attitudes towards their work as well as in their personal life. The code of ethics is a set of rules set by the National Association of Social Workers made order for a social worker to follow while being a professional. These principles could also be considered universal in social work practice across the nation. Furthermore, these principles are further explain the six core values that licensed professional social workers understand must be upheld daily in their career. According to NASW (1996), the six core values are service, social justice, dignity and worth of the individual, importance and centrality of human relationships, integrity and competence (NASW, 1996). The value of service highlights the ethical principle of serving the community by addressing social issues that may be seen in certain communities. An example of service while being a social worker would be to helpa client who may be homeless find resources to enable him or her to get back on their feet. This could entail assisting the client with being put on the Housing Authority waiting list. The value of social justice is in relation to being an advocate for a client who may be treating unfairly and getting them into a situation in which he or she may have equal rights as others do. As a professional social worker, I feel like that it is only right to be a part of at least one organization that would assist me in learning how to take be an advocate and stand up against various laws that can work against the progression of the community that I may be serving as a professional social worker. By joining educational organizations, I won't just be able to join in activities that would educate and bring awareness to such issues but I would also be building my continuing education that a social worker take part in. The ethical principle defined by the National Association of Social Workers, for dignity and worth of the person is being able to respect clients no matter his or her situation. I believe that this is important as a social worker because this will help in growing trust and a relationship with the client. This shows a client that just because they are the ones needing help that they will still be treated with dignity and respect. By being polite and treating them as a person and not as someone who is looked at as being a bad person would open the door for more opportunities and resources that could be beneficial to the well-being of the client and situation. The importance of human relationships as an ethical principle is understanding that relationships are important while being a professional. This would help the client in building new relationships and build a social worker's expertise to be able to work more effectively with their clientele. Human relationships allow a person to be able to bond more. Integrity and competence is a social worker understanding that he or she must act in a professional way and continue learning daily. As a licensed social worker and student, I am expected to become educated through professional development workshops. Within the State of Alabama, a social worker is to maintain these core values and ethical standards while practicing in the field. The use of supervision is not only an obligation but it is quite beneficial to a licensed social worker. In order for a social worker to keep his or her license, he or she must undergo hours of required supervision. Supervision is beneficial in that it assist a social worker in their ethical conduct. Under State of Alabama laws, a social worker would have to experience a minimum of 4 hours monthly for a continuous period of 24 months within a 36 month timeframe. Supervision would occur starting with having an occupation. Supervision is only completed by licensed professionals who are qualified as a Licensed Master Social Worker or Licensed Independent Clinical Social Worker. The first requirement of supervision is for a Licensed Bachelor Social Worker. If a social worker decides to no longer practice in a specific area, then he or she must complete a minimum of 4 hours monthly for a period of 6 months. Supervision is discontinued upon records and a contract is signed stating the type of supervision and conditions. Social Work Licensure and LawsWhile researching Social Work Licensure and Laws, I learned more about how the state of Alabama follows a standard guideline for the licensure and laws of social work. According to to the Alabama Legislature (1977), Title 34 Section 30 states that a person is not able to give themselves the title or practice social work unless they have been licensed and passed the social work exam (Alabama Legislature, 1977). In order to apply to take the exam, a candidate must be a graduate of an accredited BSW or MSW educational program. The applicant must be 19 years of age, have paid the initial examination fee of $250, passed the examination, signed a notarized statement and sworn of the professional code, and meet any additional requirements based on the level of licensure. In the state of Alabama, there are three types of licensure that are given to those who meet the above requirements. A person can be licensed as a Bachelor Social Worker, Master Social Worker, or an Independent Clinical Social Worker. In order to receive a license for BSW, a person has to have a bachelor degree from an accredited college or university. Furthermore, a person has to show that he or she has a completion of the social work major and completed two years of continuous full-time employment in a social work position under supervision. If a person does not have a Bachelors in social work, a person who has a Bachelor's in a related field, such as sociology, rehabilitation counseling, psychology and guidance counseling is eligible to apply for a MSW program or have a social worker job but will not be titled a social worker. In order to receive an LMSW, a person must have completed the Master or Doctorate of Social Work from an accredited or approved college or university. An exclusion to this requirement is a person who has candidacy that is granted by the Council on Social Work Education. After I graduate with my MSW, I will be seeking my LMSW. I believe that by going further in my education will not only make me more marketable in the social work field, but it will allow me to be more knowledgeable as how to work with clients. To become a LICSW, a person would need either a master's or doctorate of Social Work. A person would also need at least two years of supervision by after graduation, and be a U.S. citizen with appropriate documentation. When and if a person is issued a license from another state, he or she would be required to meet state requirements if qualifications from the other state are not equal to the qualifications of Alabama. However, this is with the exception that the application fee and exam has not been paid or passed. Those persons who are seeking exemption from the Board's examination must meet all qualifications for that specific license and also have completed six years of continuous supervised full-time employment approved by the Board or seven years of continuous full-time employment with a public agency on or before May 1, 1977. In the State of Alabama, a social work license must be renewed every 2 years. The fee for a license renewal is $100. If applicant fails to renew within a 60-day time frame of the expiration date, then the license is either terminated or suspended. Per state of Alabama law, any licensed professional who is actively practicing social work cannot be denied for license renewal. If the applicant would like to remain inactive, then that person may write a request to the Board Examiners to be placed on the inactive list.Social Work Practice Stages The Social Work practice stages are also known as the Generalist Intervention Model (GIM). According to Miller, Tice and Hall (2008), the Generalist Intervention Model is a method of practice that integrates casework, group work, and community organization, and focuses on the interaction between persons and their environments (Miller, Tice and Hall, 2008). The GIM uses engagement, assessment, intervention planning and implementation, evaluation and termination as a way to better assist clients to planned change. An example of utilizing the GIM would be first greeting and welcoming the client. For the purposes of this assignment, we will call the client- Client A. Client A is a female coming to a social worker in efforts of having planned change from her addiction of abusing alcohol. In efforts of demonstrating engagement, the social worker would use proper body language to show that he or she is listening to the client, using appropriate hand gestures and making good eye contact. The social worker would ask Client A to tell her what she thinks her needs are and what resources in the community may be beneficial to assisting her with changing. This would allow Client A to provide detailed information about her current situation and what she thinks about her surroundings. It is important for the social worker to take notes to assist Client A after the initial meeting. However, before taking notes, the social worker should ask Client A for their consent before taking notes. After asking open-ended questions through engagement, the social worker should go over with Client A how the social service agency works and the services that we will provided. Any questions that may be asked of Client A will assist the social worker with assessing Client A's needs. During the assessment portion, the social worker should assess Client A's mental/emotional state, appearance/ mobility, ability to perform her activities of daily living, her environment, health, economic status, education status and transportation needs. The social worker could utilize the tool of an Ecomap to assist her in assessing Client A's needs. For planning and implementation, the social worker should work with Client A regarding a plan that is real and attainable. Client A must believe that the plan will work and must desire to reach goals that will be made together with the social worker. The social worker should prioritize the importance of change and helping Client A understand that change is a good thing. The social worker should assist Client A in understanding how this could benefit her socially. Once the goals are established, the social worker should address the objectives of each task given and how to proceed with actions towards those goals. Since client A is struggling with alcohol abuse, the social work should assist Client A with establishing the goal of: Lessening her urge to drink alcohol. The objective would be for her go to an Alcoholic's Anonymous support group once a week for 6 weeks. The social worker will encourage Client A to keep a journal of her progress and Client A must write in her journal after each support group session and describe her experience. This will assist Client A as well as the social worker in understanding her growth.As a form of evaluation, the social worker will obtain Client A's journal that she has been writing her experience in and Client A will also complete a questionnaire on her progress. Client A would complete the questionnaire two weeks before her last appointment. The questionnaire would ask her about how she thinks she has progressed, services that were rendered, and about the social worker's expertise. Once she has successfully completed her goal, the social worker will talk with Client A about termination two weeks after the last meeting. During this, the social worker will also discuss with Client A her progression. The social worker should encourage Client A to continue with the progress she has made. If needed, the social worker should refer Client A to additional services that may be beneficial to other issues that she may face following termination. It is important for the social worker to follow-up with Client A once services are terminated. Follow-up can help Client A from relapsing or even coming back for services. However, the social worker should give Client A the phone number to the agency in case services may be needed again.Intervention and Developmental Theories for Direct Practice with Individuals, Families and GroupsThere are several theories that are used to explain the behaviors of an individual, and has provided the framework for various models and interventions. One theory that can be utilized is Conflict Theory. Conflict Theory focuses on the structure in an individual's life. This theory would showcase issues that could have occurred through a power struggle between family members or friends as well as in various stages of the individual's life. The conflict theory would then consider the familial structure, and if there is a continuous cycle that may be from the past. There is also the Systems Theory. According to Gibson (2016), Systems theory, also called social systems theory, in social science, is the study of society as a complex arrangement of elements, including individuals and their beliefs, as they relate to a whole (Gibson, 2016). The Systems Theory would show how the individual interacts with others and if there is any correlation between the influences in the client's life and their behavior. The last theory is practice models that focuses on creating an intervention through consultation and assessment of the individual. There are an array of interventions that may be completed, such as the Solution-Focused model, Crisis model, Task-centered model, and the Problem-solving model. The practice models would require more interaction with the client. Life stages would play an important role in each model especially when it comes to understanding what to focus on and what not to focus on. For example, a 50 year old is not at the same stage as a 20 year old because the 50 year old is more experienced with life. Therefore, it is key that the social worker understand this before using the practice models. Diversity/ Social Justice/ Advocacy/ Rural and Urban Communities Diversity, social justice, advocacy for rural and urban communities are at the core of social work. I believe that diversity is more important in urban communities rather than rural communities because individuals are looking for employment and better opportunity for school, homes, and the quality in urban areas. As a social worker working mostly with the older adult population, I work in both urban and rural areas. I observed that the services are limited in rural areas and is especially harder for my clientele to receive the necessary resources, such as transportation to and from their doctor's appointments. I observed that there is a need for more rural social workers to assist clients in obtaining more resources to a better quality of life. Social justice in both rural and urban communities is beneficial as there are most likely political and social issues faced by persons who live there. Some people in rural areas may not even have an opportunity for their social injustice issues to be addressed due the scarcity of resources. As a social worker, it is important to be an advocate for those who may not be heard. Advocacy for rural and urban communities varies due to the resources that the community may be lacking. Sometimes a social worker will have to be an advocate for those living in a rural area for there to be more resources, such as additional transportation for the aging to be able to get to their doctor's appointments that are located in urban communities. The lack of services delays certain individuals from getting the appropriate assistance, and as a result can place the community in a mentality that they are not able to be helped and their voices will never be heard. Policy and Policy Analysis Policy and policy analysis refers to the guidelines that are set to uphold the welfare and good of the clients. Policies are ever-changing and revised in accordance with time. An analysis is completed before a policy is written. The analysis helps in the development of the policy that is brought forth through careful research, surveys, case studies and other tools. It is crucial to have an analysis completed because it provides a thorough evaluation of any revisions or changes that need to be made. It also shows how useful the policy is to the population that is should protect. Understanding the efficiency and the worth of a policy helps lawmakers and other important decision makers. Research, Program Evaluation/Needs Assessment Research, program evaluation, and needs assessment are mainly targeted, not at the needs of one client, but of a client base. A single subject design is conducted for understanding the needs of an individual. In order to conduct research on a specific group of people, there must be an Institutional Review Board. The IRB is also known as a human subject committee is used to oversee research to ensure that it is following the proper guidelines set forth to be able to conduct the research. According to Royse, Thyer, and Padgett (2016) the guidelines include: the research participants must be volunteers, the participants should be given sufficient information about the study to determine possible risks or discomforts as well as benefits, no harm shall result from the study, and sensitive information should remain protected (Royse, Thyer and Padgett , 2016, pp. 45-46). According to Royse, Thyer and Padgett (2016) A program evaluation is conducted to understand if the services are really helping the clients that they are intended to serve (Royse, Thyer and Padgett , 2016, p.During this process, information is gathered to see if the social worker and/or agency are the best fit for the client.According to Royse, Thyer and Padgett (2016), The mission of program evaluation in social work is to provide information that can be used to improve social programs (Royse, Thyer and Padgett , 2016, p.Evaluation can range from a series of open-ended questions to observation of the client base in various environments.According to Royse, Thyer and Padgett (2016), Needs assessment are attempts to identify and document unmet needs, gaps in services, or problems in a community (Royse, Thyer and Padgett, 2016, p. 6The assessment used would be dependent on how severe the clients' needs are and the type of resources that can be used to assist the clients.The individual c onducting the needs assessment can utilize tools, such as surveys, personal interviews, focus groups and etc. to perform a needs assessment. Social Work

Introduction to Computer Theory

CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND The twentieth century has been filled with the most incredible shocks and surprises: the theory of relativity, Communist revolutions, psychoanalysis, nuclear war, television, moon walks, genetic engineering, and so on. As astounding as any of these is the advent of the computer and its development from a mere calculating device into what seems like a â€Å"thinking machine. † The birth of the computer was not wholly independent of the other events of this century.The history of the computer is a fascinating story; however, it is not the subject of this course. We are concerned with the Theory of Computers, which means that we form several abstract mathematical models that will describe with varying degrees of accuracy parts of computers and types of computers and similar machines. Our models will not be used to discuss the practical engineering details of the hardware of computers, but the more abstract questions of the frontiers of capability of these mec hanical devices.There are separate courses that deal with circuits and switching theory (computer logic) and with instruction sets and register arrangements (computer ar-chitecture) and with data structures and algorithms and operating systems and compiler design and artificial intelligence and so forth. All of these courses have a theoretical component, but they differ from our study in two basic ways. First, they deal only with computers that already exist; our models, on 3 4 AUTOMATA THEORY the other hand, will encompass all computers that do exist, will exist, and that can ever be dreamed of.Second, they are interested in how best to do things; we shall not be interested in optimality at all, but rather we shall be concerned with the question of possibility-what can and what cannot be done. We shall look at this from the perspective of what language structures the machines we describe can and cannot accept as input, and what possible meaning their output may have. This descripti on of our intent is extremely general and perhaps a little misleading, but the mathematically precise definition of our study can be understood only by those who already know the concepts introduced in this course.This is often a characteristic of scholarship—after years of study one can just begin to define the subject. We are now embarking on a typical example of such a journey. In our last chapter (Chapter 31) we shall finally be able to define a computer. The history of Computer Theory is also interesting. It was formed by fortunate coincidences, involving several seemingly unrelated branches of intellectual endeavor. A small series of contemporaneous discoveries, by very dissimilar people, separately motivated, flowed together to become our subject.Until we have established more of a foundation, we can only describe in general terms the different schools of thought that have melded into this field. The most obvious component of Computer Theory is the theory of mathematic al logic. As the twentieth century started, mathematics was facing a dilemma. Georg Cantor (1845-1918) had recently invented the Theory of Sets (unions, intersections, inclusion, cardinality, etc. ). But at the same time he had discovered some very uncomfortable paradoxes-he created things that looked like contradictions in what seemed to be rigorously proven mathematical theorems.Some of his unusual findings could be tolerated (such as that infinity comes in different sizes), but some could not (such as that some set is bigger than the universal set). This left a cloud over mathematics that needed to be resolved. David Hilbert (1862-1943) wanted all of mathematics put on the same sound footing as Euclidean Geometry, which is characterized by precise definitions, explicit axioms, and rigorous proofs. The format of a Euclidean proof is precisely specified. Every line is either an axiom, a previously proven theorem, or follows from the lines above it by one of a few simple rules of in ference.The mathematics that developed in the centuries since Euclid did not follow this standard of precision. Hilbert believed that if mathematics X'ere put back on the Euclidean standard the Cantor paradoxes would go away. He was actually concerned with two ambitious projects: first, to demonstrate that the new system was free of paradoxes; second, to find methods that would guarantee to enable humans to construct proofs of all the true statements in mathematics. Hilbert wanted something formulaic-a precise routine for producing results, like the directions in a cookbook.First draw all these lines, then write all these equations, then solve for all these points, and so on and so on and the proof is done-some approach that is certain and sure-fire without any reliance BACKGROUND 5 on unpredictable and undependable brilliant mathematical insight. We simply follow the rules and the answer must come. This type of complete, guaranteed, easy-to-follow set of instructions is called an a lgorithm. He hoped that algorithms or procedures could be developed to solve whole classes of mathematical problems.The collection of techniques called linear algebra provides just such an algorithm for solving all systems of linear equations. Hilbert wanted to develop algorithms for solving other mathematical problems, perhaps even an algorithm that could solve all mathematical problems of any kind in some finite number of steps. Before starting to look for such an algorithm, an exact notion of what is and what is not a mathematical statement had to be developed. After that, there was the problem of defining exactly what can and what cannot be a step in an algorithm.The words we have used: â€Å"procedure,† â€Å"formula,† â€Å"cookbook method,† â€Å"complete instructions,† are not part of mathematics and are no more meaningful than the word â€Å"algorithm† itself. Mathematical logicians, while trying to follow the suggestions of Hilbert and st raighten out the predicament left by Cantor, found that they were able to prove mathematically that some of the desired algorithms cannot exist-not only at this time, but they can never exist in the future, either. Their main I result was even more fantastic than that.Kurt Godel (1906-1978) not only showed that there was no algorithm that could guarantee to provide proofs for all the true statements in mathematics, but he proved that not all the true statements even have a proof to be found. G6del's Incompleteness Theorem implies that in a specific mathematical system either there are some true statements without any possible proof or else there are some false statements that can be â€Å"proven. † This earth-shaking result made the mess in the philosophy of mathematics even worse, but very exciting.If not every true statement has a proof, can we at least fulfill Hilbert's program by finding a proof-generating algorithm to provide proofs whenever they do exist? Logicians bega n to ask the question: Of what fundamental parts are all algorithms composed? The first general definition of an algorithm was proposed by Alonzo Church. Using his definition he and Stephen Cole Kleene and, independently, Emil Post were able to prove that there were problems that no algorithm could solve. While also solving this problem independently, Alan Mathison Turing (1912-1954) developed the concept of a theoretical â€Å"universal-algorithm machine. Studying what was possible and what was not possible for such a machine to do, he discovered that some tasks that we might have expected this abstract omnipotent machine to be able to perform are impossible, even for it. Turing's model for a universal-algorithm machine is directly connected to the invention of the computer. In fact, for completely different reasons (wartime code-breaking) Turing himself had an important part in the construction of the first computer, which he based on his work in abstract logic.On a wildly differ ent front, two researchers in neurophysiology, Warren 6 AUTOMATA THEORY Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1923-1969), constructed a mathematical model for the way in which sensory receptor organs in animals behave. The model they constructed for a â€Å"neural net† was a theoretical machine of the same nature as the one Turing invented, but with certain limitations. Mathematical models of real and abstract machines took on more and more importance.Along with mathematical models for biological processes, models were introduced to study psychological, economic, and social situations. Again, entirely independent of these considerations, the invention of the vacuum tube and the subsequent developments in electronics enabled engineers to build fully automatic electronic calculators. These developments fulfilled the age-old dream of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716), and Charles Babbage (1792-1871), all of whom built mechanical calculating devic es as powerful as their respective technologies would allow.In the 1940s, gifted engineers began building the first generation of computers: the computer Colossus at Bletchley, England (Turing's decoder), the ABC machine built by John Atanosoff in Iowa, the Harvard Mark I built by Howard Aiken, and ENIAC built by John Presper Eckert, Jr. and John William Mauchly (1907-1980) at the University of Pennsylvania. Shortly after the invention of the vacuum tube, the incredible mathematician John von Neumann (1903-1957) developed the idea of a stored-program computer.The idea of storing the program inside the computer and allowing the computer to operate on (and modify) the program as well as the data was a tremendous advance. It may have been conceived decades earlier by Babbage and his co-worker Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace (1815-1853), but their technology was not adequate to explore this possibility. The ramifications of this idea, as pursued by von Neumann and Turing were quite pr ofound. The early calculators could perform only one predetermined set of tasks at a time.To make changes in their procedures, the calculators had to be physically rebuilt either by rewiring, resetting, or reconnecting various parts. Von Neumann permanently wired certain operations into the machine and then designed a central control section that, after reading input data, could select which operation to perform based on a program or algorithm encoded in the input and stored in the computer along with the raw data to be processed. In this way, the inputs determined which operations were to be performed on themselves.Interestingly, current technology has progressed to the point where the ability to manufacture dedicated chips cheaply and easily has made the prospect of rebuilding a computer for each program feasible again. However, by the last chapters of this book we will appreciate the significance of the difference between these two approaches. Von Neumann's goal was to convert th e electronic calculator into a reallife model of one of the logicians' ideal universal-algorithm machines, such as those Turing had described.Thus we have an unusual situation where the advanced theoretical work on the potential of the machine preceded the demonstration that the machine could really exist. The people who first discussed BACKGROUND 7 these machines only dreamed they might ever be built. Many were very surprised to find them actually working in their own lifetimes. Along with the concept of programming a computer came the question: What is the â€Å"best† language in which to write programs?Many languages were invented, owing their distinction to the differences in the specific machines they were to be used on and to the differences in the types of problems for which they were designed. However, as more languages emerged, it became clear that they had many elements in common. They seemed to share the same possibilities and limitations. This observation was at f irst only intuitive, although Turing had already worked on much the same problem but from a different angle. At the time that a general theory of computer languages was being developed, another surprise occurred.Modem linguists, some influenced by the prevalent trends in mathematical logic and some by the emerging theories of developmental psychology, had been investigating a very similar subject: What is language in general? How could primitive humans have developed language? How do people understand it? How do they learn it as children? What ideas can be expressed, and in what ways? How do people construct sentences from the ideas in their minds? Noam Chomsky created the subject of mathematical models for the description of languages to answer these questions.His theory grew to the point where it began to shed light on the study of computer languages. The languages humans invented to communicate with one another and the languages necessary for humans to communicate with machines s hared many basic properties. Although we do not know exactly how humans understand language, we do know how machines digest what they are told. Thus, the formulations of mathematical logic became useful to linguistics, a previously nonmathematical subject. Metaphorically, we could say that the computer then took on linguistic abilities.It became a word processor, a translator, and an interpreter of simple grammar, as well as a compiler of computer languages. The software invented to interpret programming languages was applied to human languages as well. One point that will be made clear in our studies is why computer languages are easy for a computer to understand whereas human languages are very difficult. Because of the many influences on its development the subject of this book goes by various names. It includes three major fundamental areas: the Theory of Automata, the Theory of Formal Languages, and the Theory of Turing Machines.This book is divided into three parts correspondi ng to these topics. Our subject is sometimes called Computation Theory rather than Computer Theory, since the items that are central to it are the types of tasks (algorithms or programs) that can be performed, not the mechanical nature of the physical computer itself. However, the name â€Å"computation† is also misleading, since it popularly connotes arithmetical operations that are only a fraction of what computers can do. The term â€Å"computation† is inaccurate when describing word AUTOMATA THEORY processing, sorting and searching and awkward in discussions of program verification. Just as the term â€Å"Number Theory† is not limited to a description of calligraphic displays of number systems but focuses on the question of which equations can be solved in integers, and the term â€Å"Graph Theory† does not include bar graphs, pie charts, and histograms, so too â€Å"Computer Theory† need not be limited to a description of physical machines but can focus on the question of which tasks are possible for which machines.We shall study different types of theoretical machines that are mathematical models for actual physical processes. By considering the possible inputs on which these machines can work, we can analyze their various strengths and weaknesses. We then arrive at what we may believe to be the most powerful machine possible. When we do, we shall be surprised to find tasks that even it cannot perform. This will be-our ultimate result, that no matter what machine we build, there will always be questions that are simple to state that it cannot answer.Along the way, we shall begin to understand the concept of computability, which is the foundation of further research in this field. This is our goal. Computer Theory extends further to such topics as complexity and verification, but these are beyond our intended scope. Even for the topics we do cover-Automata, Languages, Turing Machines-much more is known than we present he re. As intriguing and engaging as the field has proven so far, with any luck the most fascinating theorems are yet to be discovered.